16.7 References

1. President's Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research. Deciding to Forego Life-Sustaining Treatment. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office; 1983.

2. Lo B, Jonsen AR. Clinical decisions to limit treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1980;93:764-768.

3. Jonsen AR, Siegler M, Winslade WJ. Clinical Ethics. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Co, Inc; 1986:102-109.

4. The Hastings Center. Guidelines on the Termination of Life-Sustaining Treatment in the Care of the Dying. Briarcliff Manor, NY: The Hastings Center; 1987.

5. Ruark JE, Raffin TA. Initiating and withdrawing life support: principles and practice in adult medicine. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:25-30.

6. Wanzer SH, Federman DD, Adelstein SJ, et al. The physician's responsibility toward hopelessly ill patients: a second look. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:844-849.

7. Weir RF, Gostin L. Decisions to abate life-sustaining treatment for nonautonomous patients: ethical standards and legal liability for physicians after Cruzan. JAMA. 1990;264:1846-1853.

8. Appelbaum PS, Grisso T. Assessing patients' capacities to consent to treatment. N Engl J Med. 1988;319:1635-1638.

9. Annas GJ. The health care proxy and the living will. N Engl J Med. 1991;324:1210-1213.

10. Orentlicher D. Advance medical directives: from the Office of the General Counsel. JAMA. 1991;263:2365-2367.

11. Steinbrook R, Lo B. Decision making for incompetent patients by designated proxy: California's new law. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:1598-1601.

12. Lo B, Steinbrook R. Beyond the Cruzan case: the U.S. Supreme Court and medical practice. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:895-901.

13. Wolf SM, Boyle P, Callahan D, et al. Sources of concern about the Patient Self-Determination Act. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1666-1671.

14. Areen J. The legal status of consent obtained from families of adult patients to withhold or withdraw treatment. JAMA. 1987;258:229-235.

15. In re EG. 549 NE2d 322 (1989).

16. Youngner SJ. Who defines futility? JAMA. 1988;260:2094-2095.

17. Schneiderman LJ, Jecker NS, Jonsen AR. Medical futility: its meaning and ethical implications. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112:949-954.

18. Tomlinson T, Brody H. Futility and the ethics of resuscitation. JAMA. 1990;264:1276-1280.

19. Lo B. Unanswered questions about DNR orders. JAMA. 1991;265: 1874-1875.

20. Faber-Langendorf K. Resuscitation of patients with metastatic cancer: is a transient benefit still futile? Arch Intern Med. 1991;151:235-239.

21. Blackhall LJ. Must we always use CPR? N Engl J Med. 1987;317: 1281-1285.

22. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, American Medical Association. Guidelines for the appropriate use of do-not-resuscitate orders. JAMA. 1991;265:1868-1871.

23. Wachter RM, Luce JM, Hearst N, Lo B. Decisions about resuscitation: inequities among patients with different diseases but similar prognoses. Ann Intern Med. 1989;111:525-532.

24. Bedell SE, Delbanco TL, Cook EF, Epstein FH. Survival after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the hospital. N Engl J Med. 1983;309:569-576.

25. Evans AL, Brody BA. The do-not-resuscitate order in teaching hospitals. JAMA. 1985;253:2236-2239.

26. Moss AH. Informing the patient about cardiopulmonary resuscitation: when the risks outweigh the benefits. J Gen Intern Med. 1989;4:349-355.

27. Edwards BS. Does the DNR patient belong in the ICU? Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am. 1990;2:473-480.

28. Walker RM. DNR in the OR: resuscitation as an operative risk. JAMA. 1991;266:2407-2412.

29. Cohen CB, Cohen PJ. Do-not-resuscitate orders in the operating room. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1879-1882.

30. Truog RD. 'Do-not-resuscitate' orders during anesthesia and surgery. Anesthesiology. 1991;74:606-608.

31. American College of Emergency Physicians. Guidelines for 'do not resuscitate orders' in the prehospital setting. Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17:1106-1108.

32. Miles SH, Crimmins TJ. Orders to limit emergency treatment for an ambulance service. JAMA. 1985;254:525-527.

33. Gray WA, Capone RJ, Most AS. Unsuccessful emergency medical resuscitation: are continued efforts in the emergency department justified? N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1393-1398.

34. Kellermann AL, Staves DR, Hackman BB. In-hospital resuscitation following unsuccessful prehospital advanced cardiac life support: 'heroic efforts' or an exercise in futility? Ann Emerg Med. 1988;17: 589-594.

35. Weaver WD. Resuscitation outside the hospital: what's lacking? N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1437-1439.

36. Iserson KV. Foregoing prehospital care: should ambulance staff always resuscitate? J Med Ethics. 1991;17:19-24.

37. Dull SM, Graves JR, Larsen MP, Cummins RO. Expected death and unwanted resuscitation in the prehospital setting. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19:245. Abstract.

38. Sachs GA, Miles SH, Levin RA. Limiting resuscitation: emerging policy in the emergency medical system. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:151-154.

39. Crimmins TJ. The need for a prehospital DNR system. Prehosp Disas Med. 1990;5:47-48.

40. Wachter RM, Luce JM, Lo B, Raffin TA. Life-sustaining treatment for patients with AIDS. Chest. 1989;95:647-652.

41. 56 Federal Register. 28513-28522.

42. Orlowski JP, Kanoti GA, Mehlman MJ. The ethical dilemma of permitting the teaching and perfecting of resuscitation techniques on recently expired patients. J Clin Ethics. 1990;1:201-205.

43. Benfield DG, Flaksman RJ, Lin TH, Kantak AD, Kokomoor FW, Vollman JH. Teaching intubation skills using newly deceased infants. JAMA. 1991;265:2360-2363.

44. Jain L, Ferre C, Vidyasagar D, Nath S, Sheftel D. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of apparently stillborn infants: survival and long-term outcome. J Pediatr. 1991;118:778-782.

45. Botkin JR. Delivery room decisions for tiny infants: an ethical analysis. J Clin Ethics. 1990;1:306-311.

46. Bircher N, Safar P. Cerebral preservation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit Care Med. 1985;13:185-190.

47. Safar P, Bircher NG. Cardiopulmonary Cerebral Resuscitation: Basic and Advanced Cardiac and Trauma Life Support: An Introduction to Resuscitation Medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 1988.

48. Plum F, Posner JB. The Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Co; 1980.

49. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Brain Death in Children. Report of a special task force: guidelines for the determination of brain death in children. Pediatrics. 1987;80:298-300.

50. Ashwal S, Schneider S. Pediatric brain death: current perspectives. Adv Pediatr. 1991;38:181-202.

51. Levy DE, Caronna JJ, Singer BH, Lapinski RH, Frydman H, Plum F. Predicting outcome from hypoxic-ischemic coma. JAMA. 1985;253:1420-1426.

52. Position of the American Academy of Neurology on certain aspects of the care and management of the persistent vegetative state. Neurology. 1989;39:125-126.

53. Council on Scientific Affairs and Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, American Medical Association. Persistent vegetative state and the decision to withdraw or withhold life support. JAMA. 1990;263:426-430.

54. Wilson WC, Smedira NG, Fink C, McDowell JA, Luce JM. Ordering and administration of sedatives and analgesics during the withholding and withdrawal of life support from critically ill patients. JAMA. 1992;267:949-953.

55. Edwards MJ, Tolle SW. Disconnecting a ventilator at the request of a patient who knows he will then die: the doctor's anguish. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:254-256.